Theme 4: Quantitative Research

Research Paper

This week I chose the research paper Discursive Equality and Everyday Talk Online: The Impact of Super-participants (Graham, T and Wright, S. 2013) from Journal of Computer-Mediated Communications. The paper focuses on the “dominant” minority of posters online, called super-posters, on the moneysavingexpert.com forum. To get good results – analyzing the tone and consequences without preconceived opinions about the subject – they picked a topic that the majority of people have very little knowledge of, nano-technology. 

After collecting data they found out that 2,052 super-posters (0.4%) contributed 47% of 25m+ posts. Often these super-posters are portrayed in a negative way, attempting to stop other users from posting or even attacking them. However, this paper’s foundings – using both qualitative and quantitative content analysis – show that most of them didn’t do this, but rather that the majority of super-posters discursively performed a range of positive roles. Degrading posting activity only consisted of 2%, curbing (stop others form posting) 1%, and banter/humor 11%. 

Quantitative content analysis is a method for studying recorded human content of communication. Content analysis makes it possible to compress a lot of textual information and systematically identify their properties, and compressing a lot of words into fewer content categories. When analyzing linguistics the results can depend a lot on the decoders interpretation, where for example irony can be troublesome analyzing, especially in text form. To provide basic validation of a coding scheme, it’s essential that the coding scheme can be used as a measurement tool with similar results when used by more than one person. Objectivity – or at least inter-subjectivity – plays an important role in the sense of reliability. 

Even though they used a lot of data, which supposedly would generate good, and even somewhat generalizable results, the study is still executed in a certain kind of forum. The intention with using a subject that many are unfamiliar with is great, but I think that the general tone of super-posters are quite different on a forum focusing on economy (with probably a bit older users) than for example Flashback Forum with a possibly younger audience (at least in some forum subjects), that might be more prone to using an harsh tone, and trying to affect other posters.

Physical Activity, Stress, and Self-Reported Upper Respiratory Tract Infection

In the research paper they conducted a study of 1509 Swedish men and women aged 20-60 yeas with a follow-up period of four months, to find a relationship between physical activity, self-reported URTI and stress. They used a Web-based questionnaire to get facts about the participants’ initial disease status and lifestyle factors at the start of the study, as well as follow-ups. The results of the study showed that high levels of physical activity – for both men and women – were associated with a reduced risk of contracting URTI, and stressed people (especially men) benefit from more physical activity.

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

Quantitative methods offer a way to gather and process a larger quantity of data. Findings in quantitative methods can be more generalized to a larger population and direct comparisons can be made between two masses, as long as valid sampling, significance and coding techniques has been used. They can produce statistically reliable and generalizable results. On the other hand, they do not give an in-depth analysis of a phenomenon. 

As opposed to quantitative methods, qualitative methods aim to gain a complete in-depth, detailed description of a phenomenon. Since qualitative methods produces information only on the specific cases studied and that the findings are not evaluated to see if they are statistically significant or due to chance, their findings cannot be extended to a wider population with the same degree of certainty that quantitative methods can. General conclusions in qualitative analysis are nothing more than hypotheses.

Sources:

The Content Analysis Guidebook,                                                                               (Neuendorf, K. 2002)

Discursive Equality and Everyday Talk Online: The Impact of Super-participants”,       (Graham, T. and Wright, S. 2013)

Physical Activity, Stress, and Self-Reported Upper Respiratory Tract Infection,               (Bälter, O. et. al. 2010)

 

Theme 3: Research and Theory - Reflection

During the seminar we discussed a research paper that was focusing on a hoax about a fictional soccer player. The hoax started out by using blog postings that was made ”credible” by planting text into Wikipedia articles and forged Associated Press reports. The hoax continued on in comments on forums, to blog posts, and before the hoax was revealed articles were written about the fictional player in magazines such as The Times. The article was in some way about trying to conclude what makes online communication successful, which lead to us discussing the cooperative principle, which describes how people interact with each other.

During the seminar we discussed in the group what Gregor’s theory types it belonged to and came to the conclusion that it was explanatory. But after discussing it with the seminar leader it turned out to be more of explanatory and predictable. Discussing the theories was to me a very relevant part since I thought it was a bit difficult to choose what theory my paper belonged to. Critically reading a research paper that you have no experience in whatsoever was not exactly a walk in the park neither, but I think it’s getting easier the more you read and discuss them. That’s of course a very banal statement, but I think it clearly showed during the seminar. Another giving discussion was that in natural sciences it’s easier to refute a theory if a test of it disproves the theory, but in social sciences theories are usually more sweepingly used and therefore doesn’t necessarily have to be useless.

An interesting part was the connection between theory and belief what we had written about in earlier themes. That if enough people accept a theory or belief they approach a truth. It’s nice that the words and definitions in all themes are closely related to each other, from myth and statement of fact, to myths and enlightenment and theory.

Theme 3: Research and Theory

Journal

Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication

The Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication (Impact factor 1.778, 2012) focuses on social science research on communicationg with computer-based media technologies. Within that general range it is broadly interdisciplinary and publishes work by scholars in communication, business, education, political science, sociology, psychology, media studies, information science as well as other disciplines. Original research articles and meta-analyses of prior research are acceptable formats for submission in JCMC.

Article

Campaigning on Twitter: Microblogging and Online Social Networking as Campaign Tools in the 2010 General Elections in the Netherlands

The study focuses on how candidates in the Dutch general elections of 2010 use Twitter. It also focuses on explaining why some candidates are more prone to adopt Twitter, have larger networks, and show more reciprocation than other candidates. Twitter usage is described as a counter-measure to deal with declining interest and participation in the political processes in the Western world. It is used to decrease the gap between the politicians and citizens, as well as an increase of visibility and interactivity between which might lead to increased political involvement. The study aims to describe how candidates use Twitter as well as to find explanations for differences by using party and candidate characteristics.

The first step in their strategy of analysis was to look at the entire set of candidates to try to explain why candidates subscribe to Twitter. To estimate these effects they used logistic regression analysis. The independent variables on these analyses (number of tweets, followers and following and reciprocal relations) represent count data, which is why Poisson regression was decided to be applicable. Some of the results included that there were no clear pattern if the adoption rate was higher or lower within parties with more seats in parliament, and that the more followers a candidate had the more tweets he/she sent out.

A problem with the whole article and its findings is that there are a relatively small number of test subjects (Twitter users) that are being evaluated and Twitter usage can differ a lot between cultures, countries and time, which makes it difficult to use the results in another scenario where parameters such as location and time are changed. It is impossible to say that "this is how politicians use Twitter which will lead to this". 

Theory

Theory aims to explain, inform or provide logical grounds and to describe, explain or help to understand a phenomenon. Theory can use and be backed up by references, data, lists of variables or constructs, diagrams and hypothesis (or predictions), but these are not theory by themselves since they have to be logically interpreted and evaluated.

Since my article is trying to predict political success based on the candidates’ observed characteristics, based on collected data, on Twitter I would say that the theory type falls into the Prediction theory. Prediction is a statement about the way things will happen in the future, often but not always based on experience or knowledge. A prediction may be a statement that some outcome is expected, and may cover a range of possible outcomes. Prediction – even if it doesn’t provide guaranteed information about the future – is necessary to allow plans to be made about possible developments. 

Limitations include that these kind studies are not very applicable on a broader scale, since they are often very specific. This was certainly the case in my article that only focused on a specific election, in a specific country with running candidates that specific year. However, this kind of research can provide information for further exploring in the specific area.

Theme 2: Critical Media Studies - Reflection

Even though the part about enlightenment and myths were an interesting read and had a value to reflect on, most of my thought this week went to the “culture industry” and mass deception. I often find myself thinking about the culture industry and how standardized their products are, and how much they lack a cultural and intellectual value. Even if their products don’t fit you or even interest you in the beginning, we somehow get convinced to consume them. And I think that this is not only because they’re produced to suit us, but that thee industry put so much time and effort (and money) to try and stick their products down our throats with ads, time on the radio and so on. 

During this week’s seminar a student questioned why we should even bother to encourage making products that do not generate a lot of money, for example high art movies with their small audiences "that no one wants to see", praising mass produced products made with big budget. Even though this argument would be a valid one from an economical view, it’s hard for me to understand why someone would actually think that having mass produces movies, games and music as the only option being a good thing. The statement that we would be better off without low-budget/high art movies with their small audiences is in my opinion a bit sad. Since the majority of media that we go through everyday is media that doesn’t require any intellectual challenge or engagement, because everything is laid out for us without the need for interpretation, it would hurt the individual’s ability to interpret and understand material that isn’t obvious which is often the case in the real world. And our creativity would probably more or less plummet. And besides, I think that there are a demand for these movies that "no one wants to see", it's just that the people making them do not have millions of dollars for PR.

The most interesting part however, I think, was probably how we ourselves without knowing it are contributing to the mass culture whether we want to or not. That there are strategies used by big companies to map our habits and what is trending, to adapt their products to as many people as possible and how they with this strategy can keep their power of determining what culture is. The thought that companies can decide what culture is, is really unsettling for me since I think that this is the exact opposite of how it should actually be. Culture should be determined by those who have culture as their main interest, not money. I’m not saying that we should abolish mass culture, most of what I myself consume is part of the mass culture, but maybe there is room for more culture in mass culture.

Theme 2: Critical Media Studies

Myths and Enlightenment 

Myths are a very subjective and often superstitious way to describe the world and explain phenomenon. It’s making use of deception to as a narrative instead of actual knowledge and facts. It is absorbing factuality, takes empirical repetitions and “lends some symbolic significance to them, pretending that regular repetitions are pre-determined”. Enlightenment started out as a project trying to free thought from its reliance on rumors and superstitious powers, that is mythology and religion. Enlightenment attacked values, ideas and where there was any emphasis on subjectivity and instead tried to focus on science and “real truths” through different techniques, which were extended and universalized to produce a universal science. Nature was demystified and became a matter of mere objectivity, an object for control. But since the majority of people who learn things by science are not involved in the subject themselves, but rather told how things work and that the science does not necessarily have to be one hundred percent correct, science could also be considered some kind of myth, and in extension also the enlightenment.

Culture Industry, mass media and mass deception

The “old” media is considered to stand for quality, innovation, intellectually challenging and is a “one-user” form of media, like books. The “new” media however is considered to be media whose goal is to have as broad spectra as possible, to fit as many people as possible and the goal is to make as much money as possible, which is reflected in the “new” medias television and radio and its programs and films. New media is not about innovating or advanced art or culture but is more like a business. In the old media the audience were allowed to make the rules of their experience whereas the new media regulates the audience by making them passive. The old media is more intellectually challenging since it forces you to think for yourselves and being critic of the content, whereas the new media does all the thinking for you.

A fabric producing cultural goods – movies, radio programmes, magazines – that are used to manipulate mass society into passivity is used as metaphor for popular culture. Adorno and Horkheimer theorized that the phenomenon of mass culture has a political implication, that all forms of popular culture are parts of a single culture industry whose purpose is to ensure the continued obedience of the masses to market their interests. All products of the mass-produced entertainment with its appeal to vast audiences are not always necessarily viewed as inferior, but rather that they have replaced other forms of entertainment without fulfilling the important roles played by the now absent sources of culture.

The culture industry defrauds the masses by making them think that they are providing products that are conveyed by the representations of the masses and to meet their needs, a seeming democratic participation, when it is in fact the culture industry that are shaping these needs. They are selecting what counts as culture with their standardized products, and thereby absorb any creativity. The masses are reduced to a passive, unthinking, unreflective possibly dumber blob and the capital triumphs over culture.

The true physiological needs are freedom, creativity and genuine happiness. The culture industry neglects these and cultivates false physiological needs that can only be satisfied by their products of capitalism, which threatens the more technically and intellectually advanced high arts and the industry keep their cultural power over the masses.

“The culture industry perpetually cheats its consumers

 of what it perpetually promises”. 

Topic/term of choice

I especially enjoyed the part with culture industry because I think about this almost every time I watch a movie. How standardized they are and how little you actually have to think for yourself, which I guess is why some of my favorite movies have a more open ending left for own interpretation. Which is very rare. More times than not you can almost predict the ending. I cannot even watch romantic comedies since every single scene are so predictable, almost copied directly from other high grossing rom-com movies with their mandatory happy endings, and it is so obvious that they are produced just to make money.

Theme 1: Theory of Science - Reflection

This week’s readings and assignment, I think, was a pretty important one in my opinions since it reminds us to put our “knowledge” in a greater perspective. To be reminded – not only that everything isn’t black or white – but also that we actually (more times than not) do not actually know what we think that we do.

I liked that it brought to light the correlation and differences between science and philosophy, and just the subject of philosophy itself since I’ve never had any classes in it. Although, I think that a lot of these thoughts and theories about what is “real” for example, have been utilized in some way in other media – such as movies or crossing over into other subjects – since I recognize many of the thoughts very well (although some of it was new as well). For example the scenario with the table and cloth, and if sense-data was enough to know something to be an actual physical object. If a person on a hallucinogen drug would see tables flying in the air it is pretty self evident that the table does not have the quality of flight, but is rather a part of his – very distorted – perception of it. The movie The Matrix also has a kind of questioning of reality, though taking a pill to escape the fake reality.

I found it interesting that we this week brought to light how little of our knowledge that we actually can know to be an absolute truth – or at least very close to it – since most of what we know are more of probable opinions than facts. And most of the bloggers seemed to agree on this point since I found no one criticizing it, which if happened that person would probably lack a bit of self-distance claiming that everything that they “know” is true. Another important thing that this week’s theme brought to light is the difference between actual facts and how we often make up our own versions of the truth depending on how we interpret them, especially when it comes to translating between languages since one word may have several meanings in one language. I think it would have been a rewarding discussion to have in a seminar, to bad it was cancelled.

Theme 1: Theory of Science

1. Sense Data

Russell uses the term sense-data to things that are immediately known in sensation. That is, the constituents in a sensation. For example, while experiencing a table we experience the color, smell, shape, roughness et cetera.  The experience of being aware of all these things is the sensation, and the constituents of this sensation – such as the smell – is a sense-datum. The table, which we don’t actually know even exists, he calls a ”physical object”. However, the physical object can’t just consist of sense-data, since if we put the table under a big cloth, the table would cease to exist because we would no longer see it, smell it and so on, and the cloth would magically soar in the air. 

Another reason as to why we should secure a physical object with qualities – in addition to sense-data – is that we want the same object for different people. Even though most of us experience a color or a smell pretty much the same way they will still differ slightly. Thus no fact about an object can really be self-evident to more than one person. A question raised in this subject of sense-data is what the nature of a physical object has which persists in lieu of our own perceptions of it. I think that this is quite interesting in the sense that we should be careful about what is a “fact” and what we might perceive to be facts and/or beliefs based on our senses, or beliefs based on other people’s sense-data since they can differ slightly.

2. Proposition and Statement of fact

Even though we conduct a hundred experiments and get the same result every time, we still can’t know that we will get the same result the 101th time. A result that is known to be true, but that we can’t know for sure to be true every time. Therefore it is suitable not to make the conclusion that the experiment has and absolute truth/result, but rather propose that an experiment will have a certain result. The proposition can later on be examined and tested which might yield the same, or different results. If it turns out that a large amount of tests and testers get the same result, it is approaching a statement of fact. Unlike other verbal expressions, propositions and statements of facts are based on some kind of knowledge that can be tested, not only knowledge gained by rumors, sense-data or other people’s experience and so on.

3. Definite Description

The “knowledge by acquaintance” would be knowledge gained using our sense-data, experiences, whereas “knowledge by description” would be knowledge learned by verbally from other people or reading about something for example. While describing an object Russell compares the ambiguous (“a so-and-so”) with the definite description (“the-so-and-so”, in singular). The description “a man” would be an ambiguous description (“a so-and-so”) because it is widely applicable and not at all specific, whereas a description of Jesus that would be something like “the man who walked on water and got crucified” would be a definite description (“the so-and-so”). If the fables in the Bible actually took place that is.  

4. Problems in Theory of Knowledge (epistemology)

Almost everything that we know has a big risk of being false, and most of what we know are just probable opinions since the truth is seldom self evident in the highest degree. And there is always a risk that we unknowingly alter the facts and make it into our own versions, or draw our on conclusions from a small amount of facts.

”If a man believes that the late Prime Minister's last name began with a B, he believes what is true, since the late Prime Minister was Sir Henry Campbell Bannerman. But if he believes that Mr. Balfour was the late Prime Minister, he will still believe that the late Prime Minister's last name began with a B…”

Even though knowing that the last name should start with a ”B”, it is not enough to constitute knowledge since it could be applicable to many different people, and might lead to fallacious conclusions.  The knowledge of ”starts with a B” is more more of  ”a so-and-so” description/knowledge and should not be considered true knowledge, even if the conclusions might me correct.